Summer, Art and Fashion
For a long time, summer has been an inspiration not only for fashion designers but also for other visual artists, while sunny, warm, and long summer days demand serious fashion preparations from us, regardless of whether we spend them at work or on vacation. Carefully selected, practical, and quality summer clothing will make us elegant and trendy during numerous and diverse summer activities, but also feel comfortable, confident, and at ease. As a season of travel, exploration, and new experiences, summer is a good occasion to look back at some of the iconic representations of this season in art, which indicate the importance of fashion in the life of modern man. In his essay “The Painter of Modern Life,” published in the Figaro newspaper in 1863, poet and art critic Charles Baudelaire expressed the view that fashion is an important expression of modernity, criticizing contemporary artists for dressing their figures in clothes of the past. James Tissot, a painter, illustrator, and caricaturist known for his realistic portraits and genre scenes, is one of the artists influenced by Baudelaire. As the son of a textile merchant and a milliner, Tissot developed a sense for clothing details during his upbringing, to which he paid special attention. It is known that this artist had a rich assortment of dresses in his studio in which he painted his models, and that he depicted the same dress multiple times. One of the recognizable garments in Tissot’s paintings is a white summer afternoon dress made of muslin, decorated with ruffles and yellow bows, in line with the fashion of the 1870s. In the compositions “Summer” (1876), “Officer and Ladies on the Deck of HMS Calcutta” (c. 1876), and “Spring” (c. 1878), this dress is accompanied by appropriate fashion accessories such as a hat, parasol, or fan. In the second half of the 19th century, the Impressionist movement in art celebrated the beauty of the moment and everyday life. Summer and fashion often appear as themes in the works of the Impressionists. Claude Monet painted several summer genre scenes known as “Woman with a Parasol.” One of them is “Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son” (1875), which was painted in Argenteuil. The painting depicts Monet’s first wife Camille, walking with their son Jean on a windy summer day. In addition to the white summer dress, Camille wears a hat with a veil fluttering in the wind and an open green parasol, a common fashion accessory at the time. Following Monet’s example, the motif of an open parasol would later appear in the paintings of John Singer Sargent, a portraitist who used clothing as a powerful tool for expressing personality and identity in visual art. In the famous painting “Luncheon of the Boating Party” (1880–1881), Pierre-Auguste Renoir depicted a group of his friends, members of Parisian high society. An important part of this scene, set on the banks of the Seine, on the terrace of the Maison Fournaise restaurant near Paris, is the diverse male and female, formal and informal clothing: classic men’s suits with top hats and bowler hats, sportswear with straw hats, as well as modern women’s clothing – dresses with ruffles and lace worn with imaginative hats decorated with flowers and ribbons. Among the personalities depicted in the painting is Aline Charigot, a seamstress, Renoir’s model and future wife, who sits at the table with her dog in the lower left corner. Besides Renoir’s “Luncheon of the Boating Party,” one of the most popular representations of summer and fashion in art is Georges Seurat’s painting “A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte” (1884). This Neo-Impressionist painting was done in the technique of Pointillism, which involves applying colors to the painting surface in short strokes (dots) to create the illusion of whole forms in the viewer’s eye. Among the clothing of various layers of Parisian society in the park on the island of La Grande Jatte, women’s clothing from the bustle fashion period, which lasted during the 1870s and 1880s, attracts special attention. The striking silhouettes of the bustles, supports that widened the skirt in the back, give Seurat’s complex painting the quality of an interesting fashion testimony. James Tissot, Summer, 1876; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain / Tate Britain James Tissot, Spring, 1878; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain Claude Monet, Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son, 1875; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain / National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Luncheon of the Boating Party, 1880–1881; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain / The Phillips Collection Georges Seurat, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain / Art Institute of Chicago
Medal-worthy style: a brief history of Olympic fashion
From July 26 to August 11, 2024, Paris, one of the world’s fashion, art, and style capitals, will host the Olympic Games for the third time. An important part of the visual identity of this major international sporting event, which brings together athletes, audiences, numerous staff, officials, and media teams, are the recognizable Olympic uniforms. Beyond their primary function of providing comfort, mobility, and protection, these uniforms serve as a means of visual communication, marking not only national identity but also the roles of different participants in the protocol and competitive aspects of the Games. They also reflect current trends in the sportswear industry, moral codes of the time, budget constraints, and various national branding strategies. In the early Olympic Games, participants wore their own sports equipment and clothing, which led to the introduction of clothing in specific colors and markings such as badges or armbands for easier identification. The development of ceremonial practices directly influenced the design of Olympic uniforms. At the opening of the London 1908 Olympics, the Parade of Nations, a march of national teams, was held for the first time, becoming one of the most recognizable Olympic traditions. At the Parade of Nations in Paris in 1924, many participants appeared in national uniforms, contributing to the visual dynamism of this event, which has since become a kind of visual and fashion spectacle. With the strengthening of media influence after World War II, various authors began writing the history of Olympic fashion. One of them was French fashion designer André Courrèges, who designed the uniforms for the staff of the 1972 Munich Olympics. To distance themselves from the 1936 Berlin Olympics, held under the shadow of the Nazi regime, the organizers wanted to give the Munich event a relaxed and informal character. Their requirement was that the uniforms be inspired by Bavarian folklore and safari style, with a defined color palette that included light blue, green, lavender, orange, and silver gray. Considering these guidelines, Courrèges designed practical clothing that included overalls, baseball caps, mini skirts, and jackets. This clothing is also remembered because it was worn by the future Queen Silvia of Sweden, who met her husband, then Crown Prince and now King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, as a hostess in Munich. Among the designers of Olympic uniforms over time have been names like Ralph Lauren, Giorgio Armani, Issey Miyake, and Christian Louboutin. For the London 2012 Olympics, Stella McCartney designed the entire Olympic collection for the Great Britain team. On that occasion, she stated that the competitive uniforms were a bigger challenge for her than the ceremonial ones. The deconstructed Union Jack motif she used in 2012 was criticized for being too blue. Therefore, for the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics, she chose a heraldic design with floral emblems of the four British nations, the Latin motto “Iuncti in Uno” (Joined in One), and the GB logo. Besides comfort and practicality, Stella McCartney’s Olympic uniforms are characterized by bold graphic prints, colors, and inspiration from British heritage. Presentations of the Olympic uniforms of participating countries’ teams traditionally attract attention in the weeks leading up to the opening of the Games. At the 2024 Paris Olympics, the French team will appear at the Parade of Nations in uniforms by the brand Berluti. The design of these dark blue suits, modern versions of tuxedos, embodies elegance and sophistication as synonyms for the host country’s style. Serbian Olympians will defend their national colors in Paris in uniforms by the brand PEAK. The design of the Olympic collection for Team Serbia is based on the colors of the national flag – red, blue, and white – but also on symbols, notably the cross as a universal symbol of faith, hope, love, and victory. Poster for the fencing events at the 1900 World Fair and Summer Olympics in Paris; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain S. Olympic swimming team at the Paris Olympics 1924; photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain Clothes of the volunteers at the Munich Olympics 1972; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 1.0 / User: H-stt Parade of Nations at the London Olympics 2012; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0 / Department for Culture, Media and Sport Athletes from Serbia at the opening of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0 / Jude Freeman
Fashion, Identity, and Lifestyle in Belgrade in the 19th and Early 20th Century: Gatherings, Sports, Recreation, and Excursions
During the 19th century, social life in Belgrade developed intensively. A popular form of social gathering was women’s posela, which had been held since the late 1830s. The first posela were organized by Marija Milutinović, known as Maca Punktatorka, the wife of the poet Sima Milutinović – Sarajlija, and later by Anka Konstantinović, the daughter of Jevrem Obrenović, brother of Prince Miloš. At these gatherings, various women’s topics were discussed, with fashion occupying an important place. Additionally, the gathered women were introduced to European culture, advised on child-rearing and home decoration, and discussed various daily events. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such gatherings became known as žurevi. This term originated from the French term jour fixe, which denoted a fixed day of the week when the hostess would receive her friends. An indispensable part of life in Belgrade also became various sports activities. On the city’s streets, especially on the Promenade in Knez Miloš Street, men and women could be seen riding horses recreationally. Among the first women to engage in this sport were the daughters of Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević. They rode on side-saddles, wearing half-cylinders on their heads and boots. The first horse races in Belgrade were organized in 1863 by Prince Mihailo Obrenović, who was himself an excellent rider and a great lover of equestrian sports. In Belgrade, fencing and shooting, as well as gymnastics and martial arts, also developed. The fencing society “Serbian Sword” was founded in 1897, and in 1906, the football club of the same name was founded. The football club “Soko” was established in 1903, and BSK (Belgrade Sports Club) in 1911, while the First Serbian Society for Gymnastics and Wrestling was founded as early as 1857 by painter Steva Todorović. In the last decades of the 19th century, recreational sports such as cycling, ice skating, tennis, and swimming emerged. The first Serbian cycling society was founded in 1884. This society also had its own ice rink, located where the Army House stands today. A reporter from the newspaper Politika noted in January 1905 at the ice rink of the First Serbian Cycling Society that male and female skaters were not dressed as they should be, recommending cycling attire for men and the shortest possible skirts for women, noting that this was not shameful since in America and England, women already wore such skirts on the streets, and no one laughed at them. During the summer months, excursions were an important part of city life. Wealthier citizens temporarily moved to their summer houses in Topčider, and traveled to some resort or spa, while excursions to the city’s surroundings were a pleasant summer pastime available to the broader population. Popular excursion spots around Belgrade were Topčider and Košutnjak. The Austro-Hungarian travel writer Felix Kanitz recorded that especially on Sundays and holidays, /…/ the shady paths leading from the railway station to the restaurants were covered with crowds of cheerful people and that people preferred to stop in the wooded corner around Hajdučka Česma. Excursions were an opportunity not only to rest from daily obligations but also for more casual attire, suited to outdoor activities. In a group photograph of excursionists in the vicinity of Belgrade, from the collection of the Museum of Applied Arts, taken around 1900 by the famous photographer Milan Jovanović, a rich assortment of various men’s and women’s hats is documented. While women, in accordance with the fashion of that time, wore striking and decorated hats, on the heads of men we can see almost all types of men’s headgear characteristic of the 19th and early 20th century: fez, top hat, bowler hat, homburg, fedora, boater, and caps worn as part of a uniform. Although the lawyer and politician Dimitrije Marinković noted in his memoirs that in the mid-19th century, the fez was not considered unusual, while men’s hats at that time, and later, were very rare, by the beginning of the 20th century, the hat had become an indispensable detail in men’s attire. Skating rink of the First Serbian Cycling Association, 1900s; photo: the collection of Miloš Jurišić Cyclist, 1900s; photo: the collection of Miloš Jurišić People on a side trip in Košutnjak, Belgrade, 1913; photo: the collection of Miloš Jurišić People on a side trip on the lake in Kijevo, Belgrade, 1909; photo: the collection of Miloš Jurišić Milan Jovanović, Group portrait of people on a side trip, Beograd, oko 1900; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0 RS DEED / Museum of Applied Art in Belgrade / user: Gmihail
How did the women’s handbag become an important fashion accessory?
From the earliest times, handbags have been a useful addition to clothing worn by both men and women. The emergence of the modern handbag throughout history was preceded by a series of different types, from medieval pouches worn on belts, through 18th-century pockets, bags for carrying books and needlework supplies, to pouches for small change. The development of the handbag as we know it today was greatly influenced by the emancipation of women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Increased mobility of women and their more significant participation in the business world led to the emergence of various types of handbags, from travel and business bags to daytime handbags and elegant evening bags. An important part of the history of handbags is their contents, which have changed over time. Money, makeup, and tissues have remained in handbags to this day, while needlework supplies disappeared along with the disappearance of this activity from women’s social lives. Over time, new items have made their way into handbags: credit cards have joined metal and paper currency, the range of makeup has increased, and cloth handkerchiefs, hand-decorated with embroidery, have replaced packaged disposable paper tissues. The former place of needlework supplies has been taken over by various electronic devices such as mobile phones and tablets, while cigarettes, which entered women’s handbags in the 1920s as an expression of the struggle for equality, have been removed from them in recent decades, following current trends in healthy living. Unlike shoes, which gradually take on the shape of the wearer’s foot, a handbag becomes a projection of personality by the way it is used. Thus, psychoanalyst Adam Phillips observes that what we say when we talk about handbags – especially when considering them from a historical or aesthetic standpoint – can blur their intimate dimension. Fashion journalist Anna Johnson sees the handbag as an intimate extension of the body, a little house for living on the move, or a portable boudoir full of lipsticks and hairpins, while curator Claire Wilcox emphasizes the dual function of the handbag, which simultaneously reveals and conceals, managing to be both public and private. Therefore, the handbag is the only fashion item where both the exterior and interior are equally important. Surely each of us has at least several times, after carefully examining the interior of a handbag that initially appealed to us, given up on purchasing it, concluding that it is not a place where we can adequately accommodate a portable part of our personal world. The women’s handbag developed in the last third of the 19th century from leather travel bags with handles, metal clasps, and internal compartments. Leather handbags became a mandatory fashion accessory that women wore outside the home, with daytime attire – long jackets, skirts, and large hats. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, various types of evening handbags also became fashionable. Among them were clutch bags, shaped like pouches, often made of the same material as the corresponding evening dress. At that time, compact silver bags decorated with engraved ornaments were also worn, as well as leather cases for opera glasses. Despite their small dimensions, the interior of these handbags had a complex structure, which included a whole range of different compartments, among which were compartments for small change and a mirror, while in opera glass bags, in addition to a compartment for the glasses themselves, there was also space for a fan, a powder puff, a note card, and a pencil. In the dress of the modern woman, the handbag represents an important fashion accessory, and among the most famous handbag manufacturers today are brands such as Hermès, Chanel, Louis Vuitton, Gucci, and Bottega Veneta. Some of the classic handbag models, such as Chanel’s 2.55 bag or Hermès’ Birkin and Kelly bags, have remained in fashion for decades. While the iconic Hermès models are named after actresses Jane Birkin and Grace Kelly, the luxury Jodie bag from the Bottega Veneta brand is named after actress Jodie Foster. When making this bag, a technique of weaving leather strips called intrecciato is used, which represents the brand’s recognizable pattern. Draginja Maskareli Museum Consultant – Art and Fashion Historian Images: Handbag, Florence, around 1450, Textile Museum (Museo del tessuto), Prato; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED Pockets, 1796, Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum, New York; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC0 1.0 DEED Silver handbag, around 1890; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA); photo: Wikimedia Commons / public domain Fashion illustration, Journal des dames et des modes magazine, 1912; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC0 1.0 DEED / Rijksmuseum Fashion illustration, Journal des dames et des modes magazine, 1913; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC0 1.0 DEED / Rijksmuseum
Fashion Icons of the Past: Queen Maria
Even during her upbringing, Queen Maria, as a member of European aristocracy, developed a poised and elegant fashion style, which in our environment was kindly interpreted as an expression of modesty. Thus, at the beginning of 1941, in the magazine “Nedeljne ilustracije,” Queen’s visit to a charitable book exhibition was recounted, during which she, modestly groomed and even more modestly dressed, left speechless luxuriously dressed ladies from the best Belgrade houses. However, documentation related to the procurement of Queen’s clothing, preserved in the Archives of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, shows that she, in line with her status as the wife of a ruler, purchased clothing from leading Parisian haute couture houses such as Worth, Redfern, Drecoll, Patou, Martial & Armand, and Lelong. Queen Maria’s wedding dress was tailored at the Maison Nouvelle fashion salon in Bucharest, along with several other ceremonial dresses she brought with her upon her arrival in Belgrade in 1922. Queen Maria’s mother, Queen Maria of Romania, was also considered a style icon, and when it comes to fashion, one should not overlook the fact that Romania is one of the countries with a long and rich tradition of clothing, which occupied an important place in the public representation of elite social strata. Since she shared the same name as her mother, the Yugoslav queen was also known by the nickname Minyon (Mignon). During the interwar period, fur clothing was an obligatory part of women’s wardrobes. Queen Maria purchased fur in Paris, and it is known that in 1927, she bought a Siberian squirrel coat at the famous Belgrade shop of Đura Janošević, located on Knez Mihailova Street, at the site of today’s bookstore in the building of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. In 1922 and 1923, she ordered a ceremonial velvet coat with ermine and 13 evening dresses made of velvet, lame, and lace, in black, gray, beige, gold, red, pink, and green, as well as in strawberry and fuchsia colors from the fashion house Redfern. From this fashion house, in 1926, the queen received two boxes of toiletries, and during her stay in Paris in 1928, she ordered 13 dresses in gray, white, and beige from Redfern, including models Ole, Artemia, Fantasque, and Come Again, as well as gray and white sweaters, a coat, and an astrakhan fur coat. Two coats, an astrakhan set, fox fur, and one fur were acquired by the queen from Redfern in 1930. Interestingly, for a while, the talented Belgrade tailor Katarina Mladenović, active in the 1920s and known for her models adorned with various ornaments, worked for the fashion house Redfern. Mladenović executed these ornaments with an original technique she devised and patented, painting the fabric with melted metals and synthetic gemstones. The Redfern house was not only recognizable for its luxurious creations intended for members of high society. This house is significant in the history of fashion as a pioneer in the production of clothing tailored to the needs of modern women and outdoor activities such as walking, driving cars, playing tennis, cycling, or equestrian sports. Queen Maria herself was an excellent driver and a great lover of driving. She primarily ordered practical clothing from the fashion house Patou. In 1926, the queen bought a Caprice dress and a white felt hat from Patou, while the same year, a package of clothes was delivered to her in Belgrade by the Orient Express train from this fashion house. A representative of Patou, Miss Rišar (Richard), came to Belgrade in 1927 to receive new orders from Queen Maria. Also, three packages with sports costumes for the queen arrived in 1925 from London. In the fashion house Worth, the oldest Parisian haute couture house, Queen Maria bought an evening dress made of lame with a cloak and fur in 1934. That same year, after the assassination of King Alexander in Marseille, she ordered mourning attire from this fashion house – a crepe de chine dress, an afternoon coat, two hats, two veils, a Roman dress, and a Roman cloak. Numerous preserved photographs and painted portraits testify to the elegance of Queen Maria, who was exceptionally beloved and respected by the people. Draginja Maskareli Museum Adviser – Art and Fashion Historian Pictures:
Fashion Icons of the Past: Queen Natalija
Serbian Queen Natalija had a deep love for fashion. Despite facing criticism from many in Serbia, including King Milan, for her penchant for luxury, she was considered a fashion icon of her time, with a significant following among women. After her exile from Serbia in 1891, a dress she left behind was reportedly preserved as a cult item in the home of the Belgrade Women’s Society. The most well-known and representative visual depiction of Queen Natalija is the portrait from 1882 painted by Vlaho Bukovac, which is displayed in the National Museum of Serbia. In this portrait, the queen is dressed in a sumptuous turn-of-the-century gown, in line with European fashion trends of the 1870s and 1880s. Evolving from crinolines that spread the lower part of the dress around the body, the “turnir” was a support structure worn at the back to expand only the rear part of the skirt. The fashion of this period was characterized by decorative elements such as ribbons, trimmings, elastic fabrics, and pleats, while the materials used for the turnir included cushions filled with horsehair, tightly starched fabric, and frames made of bones, bamboo, and rattan. Vlaho Bukovac recollected in his memoirs a conversation with Queen Natalija regarding her intention to be presented in a “turnir” gown. On that occasion, she expressed her dislike for elaborate national costumes, which she thought involved too much jewelry and ornaments. By preferring fashion over national attire, Queen Natalija, emphasizing her fashion-conscious image, directly participated in reshaping the public representation of the ruler’s wife, which was significantly different from the previous norms. Historically, the central aspect of the official representation of the wives of Serbian rulers, especially in the cases of Princess Persida and Queen Natalija, was lavish headgear and jewelry, including large brooches. Another portrait of Queen Natalija, painted by Uroš Predić in 1890, attracted public attention when it appeared at an auction at Bonhams in London in 2008. In this portrait, set in the queen’s private salon-boudoir, various carefully selected interior elements played a crucial role in constructing the image. Oriental carpets and Pirot kilims, books, domestic and foreign newspapers, a photograph of Crown Prince Alexander, an icon of the Virgin Mary, a palm tree, and a samovar were all featured. It is possible that this portrait, for which Queen Natalija wrote in 1904 that it should be sent to the writer Pierre Loti in Istanbul, was intended as a gift. Following her divorce from King Milan in 1891, Queen Natalija lived in Biarritz, at Villa Sashino. Here, she organized social gatherings and hosted prominent figures from the political, social, and artistic spheres. She wrote to geologist and politician Jovan Žujović in 1897 and 1898 that she was at the center of social events, leading a high-society life. In 1897, the British fashion magazine The Queen, which regularly reported on high society women, announced that Queen Nathalie of Servia had purchased numerous chef d’oeuvres in the Paris branch of the Redfern fashion house. This renowned fashion house later supplied clothing to the Yugoslav queen, Maria. It is interesting to note that the only high-fashion item in Serbian museum collections was created in the Paris branch of the Redfern fashion house. This is an evening gown worn by Elena Ristić at her engagement party in Paris in 1909. The dress was featured in the prestigious French fashion magazine Les Modes in the same year, in both the July and November issues, and is now part of the collection of the Museum of Applied Arts in Belgrade. Draginja Maskareli Museum Advisor – Art and Fashion Historian Images: Vlaho Bukovac, Queen Natalija, 1882; Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED / National Museum of Serbia Queen Natalija; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED / Museum of Rudnik and Takovo Area Princess Julija, circa 1865, National Museum of Serbia; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain Uroš Predić, Queen Natalija, 1890; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain Evening Gown, Redfern fashion house, Les Modes magazine, Paris, July 1909; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain / Gallica Digital Library
History of Fashion and Street Style
In 1994, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London hosted an exhibition titled “Streetstyle: From Sidewalk to Catwalk, 1940 to Tomorrow,” curated by Amy de la Haye. The exhibition showcased nearly 300 items representing British and American subcultures and countercultures, aiming to illustrate their influential role in Britain. The exhibition offered fresh interpretations of the dynamics of clothing by placing items in a cultural context, featuring attire from biker, surfer, rockabilly, hipster, rocker, punk, goth, and other subcultures. Leather jackets, denim, kaftans, baseball caps, cowboy boots, and psychedelic shirts were presented alongside music, photography, video, and fashion details, providing visibility to the complex factors that influenced the development of street style. “Streetstyle” was the first fashion exhibition with the concept of highlighting the diversity of subcultures in which young people created distinctive identities through clothing and music of their choice. Pioneers of street fashion like Jimmy Jumble, Sarah Ratty, Oz, Clare Tranter, and Craig Morrison were showcased alongside renowned high fashion names, such as Karl Lagerfeld, Donna Karan, Yves Saint Laurent, Vivienne Westwood, Calvin Klein, and Gianni Versace. Even these high fashion designers considered street fashion a powerful source of inspiration. Due to its innovative approach and high attendance, the exhibition was met with criticism, from questions about the appropriateness of such clothing in a prestigious British art institution to critiques claiming it was too academic or failed to connect clothing with other aspects of subcultures, such as music and politics, or to keep pace with the rapid evolution of street styles. Today, nearly thirty years later, the connection between street style and mainstream fashion is clear and recognizable to all clothing enthusiasts. Therefore, it’s no surprise that this theme has gained a prominent place in one of the notable fashion exhibitions in 2023, “Beyond the Little Black Dress.” Curated by Georgina Ripley, this exhibition took place at the National Museums Scotland in Edinburgh. By tracing the history of the little black dress through more than 60 clothing items from Coco Chanel and the 1920s to the present day, the exhibition deconstructed this essential piece of women’s clothing, viewing it as a blank canvas onto which various identities and cultural meanings have been projected over a century. A segment of the “Beyond the Little Black Dress” exhibition, titled “Subcultural Black,” focused on the symbolism of the color black in the clothing of different 20th-century subcultural movements and their influence on mainstream fashion. Within this segment, models by British designers Zandra Rhodes and Gareth Pugh, inspired by punk, were featured, as well as those by British designer Theresa Coburn and Belgian designer Olivier Theyskens, inspired by the goth subculture. The source of inspiration for mainstream fashion was the subculture of streetwear, rooted in the 1970s hip-hop scene and Afro-Caribbean, Latino, and African-American neighborhoods in New York, such as the Bronx. One of the brands known for luxury clothing inspired by street style is the Italian brand Off-White, founded in Milan in 2013 by American fashion designer Virgil Abloh. In the “Beyond the Little Black Dress” exhibition, this brand was represented by a black dress from the pre-fall 2018 collection. The short Off-White dress, made of viscose and polyester, featured the text “Little black dress” in quotation marks. Abloh’s use of quoted references to popular culture and fashion history is a recognizable element of his brand and design. By presenting the words “Little black dress” as a quotation, Abloh simultaneously questions their validity and satirizes the cultural currency of the little black dress. Sources of inspiration play a significant role in the contemporary fashion system, involving interactions among various factors, including fashion houses, fabric and clothing manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. In this regard, references to street style and popular culture allow fashion designers to successfully mediate between these factors, creating fashion trends that reflect the spirit of the times. Draginja Maskareli Museum Advisor – Art and Fashion Historian Images: 1–3. Beyond the Little Black Dress Exhibition, National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, September 25, 2023; Photo: D. Maskareli Virgil Abloh, Paris Fashion Week, Fall/Winter 2019; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED / Myles Kalus Anak Jihem Nike and Off-White Air Force 1 Sneakers, 2017; Photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED / Puppyc
Story of Cashmere
When we mention cashmere, elegance and luxury are among the first associations that come to mind. This fine animal fiber is obtained from the short, soft hairs of mountain goats and is known as one of the most expensive fibers in the world. Various breeds of cashmere goats, named after the Kashmir region in northwest India, inhabit the mountainous areas of Asia, primarily in Mongolia, China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The Kashmir region is also associated with the production of cashmere shawls, which played a significant role in European fashion in the 19th century. They were made from the wool of a specific type of cashmere goat known as pashmina. Cashmere is highly sought after in the world of fashion. Warm, comfortable, and lightweight cashmere fabrics are exceptionally pleasant to wear, with excellent drape and a soft texture. Due to its fineness, cashmere requires careful maintenance. At the same time, it is a very limited resource: one cashmere goat can produce around 200 grams of fiber annually, meaning that crafting a single sweater requires the fiber from several sheep. The history of cashmere production spans centuries, and today, China and Mongolia are the leading producers. Modern cashmere clothing draws attention with its simple, classic lines and high craftsmanship standards. Cashmere is most commonly used to make elegant coats, suits, and high-quality knitwear. Since the mid-20th century, cashmere sweaters have become one of the most popular cashmere fashion items. Soft, comfortable, and warm, they are available in various colors and styles, making them suitable for various occasions. It’s important to note that genuine cashmere quality comes with a corresponding price tag. Numerous cashmere shawls, wraps, coats, sweaters, and other clothing items are preserved in museum collections worldwide, bearing witness to luxury, style, elegance, and enduring fashion trends. In the collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), an interesting cashmere item is preserved: a little boy’s dress adorned with silk embroidery and tassels, made in Kashmir for the Western market around 1855. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, such dresses made of various materials were common attire for very young boys up to the age of four, and they can be seen in family photographs of Serbian bourgeoisie from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Cashmere clothing was a recognizable part of the wardrobe of Queen Elizabeth II. Cashmere coats and cardigans held a special place among the queen’s attire, and it is known that she loved to wear cashmere sweaters from the famous Scottish brand Pringle, which has held the title of a Royal Warrant holder since 1956. Another well-known cashmere clothing manufacturer, Ballantyne, was awarded the Queen’s Award for Enterprise in 1967. Princess Grace of Monaco also adored wearing Pringle sweaters. The “King of Cashmere,” Brunello Cucinelli, is favored by Prince William of Wales and actor Daniel Craig. Prince William posed in Cucinelli’s sweater in one of his official engagement photos, while Craig wore Cucinelli clothing even in his role as British secret agent James Bond in the films “Spectre” and “No Time to Die.” Luxury and high-quality cashmere clothing brands include Bramani Cashmere, Loro Piana, and Malo. Wearing cashmere clothing is a sign of refined taste and style. Whether dressed up for a night out, a business meeting, or everyday activities, cashmere adds an elegant touch to any outfit, making us feel confident, comfortable, and chic. Draginja Maskareli Museum Advisor – Art and Fashion Historian Images: Cashmere Goats; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 / Ishana Verma Cashmere Coat, fashion illustration, 1830s, G. & C. Franke collection; photo: Wikimedia Commons / public domain Little Boy’s Dress, Kashmir, circa 1855, Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA); photo: Wikimedia Commons / public domain Queen Elizabeth II with Family, Illustrated Politics, Belgrade, October 17, 1972; photo: Wikimedia Commons / public domain Queen Elizabeth II, Queen Mother, and Princess Beatrice, Balmoral, 1988, National Archives of New Zealand; photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0
Kashmir Shawls: Luxury and Status
Since the second half of the 17th century, the Levant has been the main route through which printed cotton fabrics from India reached Europe. Cities such as Venice, Genova, Livorno, and Marseille began to develop local production that imitated the imported Indian textiles. The intricate patterns and vibrant colors made these fabrics attractive to both European and Ottoman buyers, paving the way for the fashion of Kashmir shawls. Kashmir shawls originate from the region of Kashmir in northwest India. They are handmade from fine Kashmiri wool, known as pashmina, and often adorned with the distinctive tear-shaped motif with a curled tip. Their import into modern Europe began in the late 18th century and became a luxurious status symbol and fashion item in the early 19th century. Shawls inspired by Kashmiri designs started to be produced in France and England. The highest-quality European shawls were made in Lyon, while Paisley in Scotland became known for cheaper imitations. Kashmir shawls, especially those of large dimensions, also had a practical purpose: they were worn as comfortable wraps over the oversized dresses of the mid-19th century, known as crinolines. From the 1870s, as dress dimensions decreased, Kashmir shawls slowly went out of fashion and were often repurposed, used as material for making coats, jackets, dresses, and other clothing items. Fashion history had long been centered on Western Europe, perceiving the fashion of Kashmir shawls exclusively in this part of the world. However, these shawls, along with other luxury fabrics, reached trading routes to Istanbul, Alexandria, Russia, and the Balkans, finding their place in different fashion systems. Wealthy Christians in the Ottoman Empire wore expensive shawls with striped and floral patterns around their heads, known as “çalma.” Two portraits painted by the artist Pavel Đurković, one of the Wallachian boyar Constantin Cantacuzino from around 1820 and one of Serbian Prince Miloš Obrenović from 1824, are well-known examples of the use of çalma for visual representation. These head coverings, resembling turbans, defied strict Ottoman laws requiring differentiation in clothing between Muslims and non-Muslims, so Turks reluctantly viewed Christians wearing çalma. Belgrade Turk Rašid-bej recorded that during the reading of a decree, the Belgrade pasha ordered that a fine Kashmir shawl with stripes and floral patterns be brought, and then one of the finest Kashmir shawls was tied around Prince Miloš’s head, while other Serbian leaders were given one each. The event caused dissatisfaction among the present Turks, who, upon seeing what had been done, left the assembly and returned to their homes. In Serbia, before the issuance of the Hatt-i Sharif in 1830 and the acquisition of autonomy, wearing a shawl around the head was considered the epitome of male elegance. One of the reasons for this was undoubtedly the fact that wearing shawls signified a certain degree of freedom. People’s deputy Sava Ljotić wrote from Istanbul in 1819 that the people of Serbia were criticized for carrying weapons and wearing shawls, to which Prince Miloš replied that the people did not commit any evil with their weapons but carried them to defend themselves against criminals and troublemakers, while wearing shawls was a way to show off and display the freedom bestowed upon us by the Sultan. In the documents of the time in Serbia, luxury shawls were most commonly referred to as “lahor-šal,” which indicates another important center of shawl production, the Pakistani city of Lahore. As part of the wedding gifts for his nieces Jelka and Simka, the daughters of Jevrem Obrenović, Prince Miloš ordered at least six Lahore shawls from Istanbul in 1833. It is also recorded that in 1824, when his daughter Petrija got married, he intended to give two Lahore shawls as gifts to the groom’s sisters. Considering the value of these shawls, the pragmatic prince ordered that on this occasion, Princess Ljubica should part with her shawl, but if she was reluctant to do so, she should find another one, while the second shawl could be given to Đorđe Popović Ćeleš’s wife. Draginja Maskareli Museum Advisor – Art and Fashion Historian
The Magic of Wool
Wool, a fiber obtained from sheep’s fleece, possesses numerous characteristics that set it apart from other natural fibers. Wool is elastic, strong, and water-repellent, capable of absorbing up to 30% of its weight without feeling damp. It serves as an excellent heat insulator, making clothing crafted from lightweight wool fabrics suitable even for summer wear. Furthermore, wool is notably fire-resistant, significantly reducing the risk of fire hazards in household use. The history of wool usage in clothing spans thousands of years. In addition to clothing, valuable artistic items such as blankets, carpets, and tapestries have been crafted from wool for centuries. Late Antique Coptic textiles, woven from wool and linen between the 4th and 8th centuries in Egypt, were often used as appliqués on clothing. They were adorned with various botanical and geometric motifs, and at times, figurative compositions. These Coptic textiles are now preserved in numerous public and private collections worldwide, including the collection of the Museum of Applied Arts in Belgrade. In the past, as well as today, creating an elegant men’s suit involved using high-quality and modern wool fabrics. In an advertisement published in the Serbian newspapers in 1879, Belgrade tailor Dimitrije M. Ilić advised against purchasing garments that would fade, wear out, get frayed, or tear within a month or two. He offered various types of men’s coats, trousers, and suits, such as a coat for a person of modest means for 25 dinars, a coat suitable for anyone for 34 dinars, and a coat made of fashionable fabric for 36 dinars… The price range for making a men’s suit at Ilić’s shop varied, depending on the chosen fabric, from 36 to 84 dinars. While Belgrade’s male tailors in their advertisements emphasized the availability of a rich selection of imported fabrics, often from England, France, and Brno, some fabric stores in Belgrade exclusively dealt with selling these fabrics in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. Among them were the stores of Nikola S. Šopović, established in 1823, and Anastas Pavlović, founded in the 1890s. Wool holds a significant place both in the history of fashion and in the contemporary fashion industry. When it comes to wool quality, among more than 1,000 sheep breeds existing today, the Merino sheep stands out. This breed, which yields fine and soft wool, was cultivated in late medieval Spain, a country that monopolized wool production for a long time. Merino sheep were owned only by the wealthiest, and their export was strictly prohibited under the threat of the death penalty. In the 18th century, herds of Merino sheep began to arrive in other European countries. King Louis XVI of France purchased a Merino sheep herd in 1786 from his cousin, King Charles III of Spain, and started breeding them in Rambouillet. Thus, the breeding of Merino sheep spread to other parts of Europe, ultimately reaching Australia and New Zealand, which are now among the world’s largest wool producers. Contemporary fashion brands known for crafting luxury clothing from wool fabrics pay great attention to the production of high-quality wool. The company Ermenegildo Zegna awards various prizes to Merino wool producers, with the oldest being the Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy, established as early as 1963. Since 2014, this company has owned its own Merino sheep farm, Achill, in Australia. The company Loro Piana established the Record Bale award for Merino wool producers in 1997. This company is also renowned for its products made from vicuña wool. This exceptionally fine and rare fiber is obtained from the vicuña, an animal from the camelid family that resides in the mountainous regions of the Andes in South America. Although in the time of the Incas, wearing clothing made from vicuña wool was allowed only to individuals of the highest rank, during the Spanish conquest, vicuñas became common prey for hunters, nearly leading to their extinction by the mid-20th century. Loro Piana has been supporting the Peruvian government for many years in the protection of vicuñas and is one of the few companies authorized to source vicuña wool in Peru while adhering to all conservation standards. The vicuña is also a national symbol of Peru, and its image is featured on the Peruvian coat of arms. Draginja Maskareli Museum Advisor – Art and Fashion Historian Pictures: Greek vase – lekythos with a depiction of a woman extracting wool from a kalathos – a vessel used for storing wool, Tanagra, 480–470 BCE, photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.5 / Μαρσύας / National Archaeological Museum of Athens Coptic textile, Egypt, 10th–11th century, photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0 / Tropenmuseum / National Museum of World Cultures Advertisement by the male tailor Dimitrije M. Ilić, Serbian Newspaper, March 7, 1879. Merino sheep fleece, Australia, 2008, photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0 / Cgoodwin Herd of vicuñas, Peru, 2017, photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0 / Marshallhenrie
